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On a simple level, differentiated instruction is teaching with student variance in mind. It means starting where the kids are rather than adopting a standardized approach to teaching that seems to presume that all learners of a given age or grade are essentially alike. Thus differentiated instruction is “responsive” teaching rather than “one-size-fits-all” teaching. A fuller definition of differentiated instruction is that a teacher proactively plans varied approaches to what students need to learn, how they will learn it, and/or how they can express what they have learned in order to increase the likelihood that each student will learn as much as he or she can as efficiently as possible. (Tomlinson, 2003, p. 151) Link to a short video of Carol Ann Tomlinson http://college.hmco.com/education/cooper/class/7e/instructors/resources/ch06.html
What
is the theoretical/research background for this instructional method? A rationale for differentiated instruction comes from theory, research, and educational common sense. Consider the following. · Today's classrooms are becoming more academically diverse in most regions of the United States (and elsewhere, for that matter). Many, if not most, classrooms contain students representing both genders and multiple cultures, frequently include students who do not speak English as a first language, and generally contain students with a range of exceptionalities and markedly different experiential backgrounds. These students almost certainly work at differing readiness levels, have varying interests, and learn in a variety of ways? · Psychologists tell us that a student learns only when a task is a little too hard for that student. When a student can do work with little effort, and virtually independently, that student is not learning, but rather rehearsing the known. When a student finds a task beyond his or her reach, frustration, not learning, is the result. Only when a task is a bit beyond the student's comfort level, and the student finds a support system to bridge the gap, does learning occur. This optimum degree of difficulty for learning is referred to as a student's zone of proximal development. Considering today's diverse classrooms, it is unlikely that a teacher will be consistently able to develop one-size-fits-all learning experiences that are in the zones of proximal development of all students in a particular class. · Brain research suggests that when tasks are too hard for a learner, the brain "downshifts" to the limbic area of the brain that does not "think," but rather is designed to protect an individual from harm. Also, when tasks are too easy for learners, those learners do not show thoughtful brain activity, but rather display patterns that look more like the early stages of sleep. Only when tasks are moderately challenging for an individual does the brain "think" in a way that prompts learning. Once again, teachers will find it difficult to consistently find single tasks that are moderately challenging for all learners in a class that includes a range of readiness and experiential levels. · It is likely that male and female learning patterns and preferences vary. The variance probably has biological, cultural, and environmental origins. There is also, of course, great variety among both male and female populations in regard to learning. Nonetheless, it is likely counterproductive to assume that gender is an irrelevant factor in what individuals learn and how they learn. · Culture has an important bearing on how individuals learn. While it is clearly not the case that all members of a given culture learn in similar ways, it is the case that learning environments and procedures that are comfortable for many members of one cultural group may not be so to many members of other cultural groups. Students whose classrooms are a cultural misfit often do poorly in school In classrooms where varied cultural groups are represented, a single approach to teaching and learning is unlikely to serve all students well. In fact, because students in any cultural group also vary, even classrooms that are more culturally homogeneous would benefit from multiple approaches to teaching and learning.
·
Student
motivation and task persistence increase when students can · The opportunity to learn in ways that make learning more efficient is also likely to make learning more effective. Attention to a student's preferred mode of learning or thinking promotes improved achievement. From Tomlinson, C. A. (2003) pp. 153-4
Using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Educational Outcomes allows the teachers to design projects around the Content, Process, and Product that meet the needs of all levels of students in the class. In general, several guidelines need to be followed in order to create an effective classroom of diverse learning: 1. The classroom teacher and the educational team, made up of support staff and administrators, must view diversified learning as a positive experience for students. 2. The classroom teacher and the educational team must believe that students from a variety of educational, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds enhance the learning climate for all students. 3. An atmosphere of cooperation (and not competition) must be established for both students and staff. 4. Teachers must utilize all available resources to support learning activities. This requires individualizing learning for each student by arranging the classroom and the entire school for small-group, large-group, and independent learning. A fluid building is developed, students are able to utilize the entire school as their classroom, and teachers can promote student movement throughout the school as determined by learning needs and curriculum considerations. (Norlund, 2003, p. 5)
Teacher
Roles in Differentiated Instruction
Classroom
teacher Determines the core concepts and key skills to be learned Determines the most important aspects of a unit that should be included for each child
Curriculum
Design Kameenui and Simmons (1999) summarized six principles of effective curriculum design: concentration on “big idea,” conspicuous strategy instruction, mediated scaffolding, guided practice, linkage of concepts, and judicious review. These principles benefit instruction to all students but are particularly useful for classrooms that include students with learning disabilities. Instructional Strategies for Differentiating Instruction
Resource
Room Teacher Determines how to teach the child and whether this child is able to master concepts
Tutor
the student in the standard curriculum
Remediate
deficient skill area
Teach
study and metacognition skills
As
a Tutor Assists the student with completing assignments, studying for tests, and understanding the content areas. Provides extended time or a quiet place for working or testing. Reinforce the concepts taught in class. When the learning disability is severe, the resource teacher must work collaboratively with the classroom teacher to determine the core concepts that must be taught to the student and which concepts are not essential to learning.
As
a Remedial Instructor, teach phonics, comprehension, math facts, or writing syntax Instruction is individualized to meet the specific needs of each student uses multi-sensory approach to learning basic skills, teamed with direct instruction.
In
addition, teach the skills of metacognition and learning strategies Metacognition is developing an understanding of how one learns. Learning Strategies are specific skills necessary to make that child an effective learner. The ultimate goal of metacognitive instruction is self-regulation, such as goal setting, self-instruction, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement (Graham, Harris, and Reid 1992). Students who are able to determine how to learn and then evaluate the effectiveness of their chosen strategy are successful in new learning situations.
Testing
(both teachers and other support personnel) Modifying testing should not interfere with the integrity of the assessment. Modifications Tests read Verbal tests Shortened tests Literal levels of questioning More frequent tests Extended time for test completion Scribe for written responses Quiet place for testing IEP goal achievement as a basis of testing Course project rather than a written test Development of an instructional packet with a variety of activities to demonstrate knowledge Chart: Alternative assessments for ESL students http://www.learner.org/resources/series175.html Evaluating Lesson Plans for Differentiating Instruction
Discussion – what
experiences have you had with this method?
Conclusion – cautions,
other points of view from research When first starting to design differentiated instruction, it is important to that all teachers and support staff are willing to devote the time, energy, and resources to design and implement a successful program. Roles need to be clearly defined, schedules need to be made in advance and adhered to as much as possible, and collaboration/cooperation needs to replace competition at all levels. In the beginning, redesigning curriculum and teacher roles for differentiated instruction is very labor intensive. However, using technology, future planning can be streamlined, teachers can use what was successful in the past and adjust activities that may need more clarity, and spend more time on the instruction of each student according to her/his needs. In a classroom where teachers use differentiated instruction, the responsibility for learning is shared by all. It becomes a community of learners, characterized by · complex, challenging learning environments and authentic tasks; · social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning; · multiple representations of content; · understanding that knowledge is constructed; and · student-centered instruction (Driscol, 1994; Marshall, 1992 in Woolfolk, 347). Based on theory and research, classrooms using differentiated instruction can meet the needs of most students. List of references – journal articles with brief descriptions (Save digital copies of all the reference articles! These will be included on a CD of the Handbook)
Edyburn, D. (2004). Technology
Supports for Differentiated Instruction. Journal
of Special Education Technology 19 (2).
The purpose of this column is to introduce
readers to professional development resources for learning more
about differentiated instruction. In addition, we'll examine the
research supporting differentiation as an effective instructional
strategy as well as web sites that allow teachers to explore theory
in practice. Grant, J. (2003). Differentiating for Diversity. Principal (Reston, Va.) 82 (3). p. 48-51
This article describes a plan called "Differentiation
plus," which combines differentiated instruction and time differentiation,
involves differentiating what students learn, how students learn,
and when students learn, as well as extending the school day or
the school year. Advice
on how differentiation can help developmentally or chronologically
young students, impoverished students, English-as-a-second-language
students, and students with disabilities is provided. Hoover, J. J., & Patton, J. R. (2004). Differentiating standards-based education for students with diverse needs. Remedial and Special Education, 25(2), pp 74-78.
Because all students must be included in
state-mandated assessments, they must also be included in the implementation
of the standards-based curriculum. As a result, curriculum differentiation
or adaptation for students with learning and behavior problems
must occur more frequently within the guidelines established by
standards based teaching. This article outlines procedures for
curriculum differentiation within a standards based framework.
Laurence-Brown,
D. (2004). Differentiated
instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards-based learning
that benefit the whole class. American Secondary Education 32(3),
34-62. The methods described in this article are
designed for modifying secondary curriculum to meet the individualized goals for students with severe intellectual
disabilities.
Suggestions presented pay specific attention
to the following issues that remain troublesome for many teachers:
·
Making
multilevel instructional decisions (e.g., who learns at what level?)
in a way that is manageable within a standards-based instructional
context.
·
Devising
additional supports for struggling learners, especially resources
that can be provided with or without additional staff assigned
to the general education classroom.
·
Providing
an appropriate education for students with special gifts and talents
and for students with severe disabilities, who both may be members
of the same heterogeneous, inclusive classrooms.
·
Differentiating primarily within whole-class
lessons, avoiding separate, parallel tasks as much as possible. Mawhinney, T. S. (2000). Finding the answer. Principal Leadership (High School Ed.) 1 (4).
This is advice for principals about establishing
a plan for school wide differentiation to meet state requirements. Noble, T. (2004). Integrating the revised Bloom's Taxonomy with Multiple Intelligences: A planning tool for curriculum differentiation. Teachers College Record106 (1), pp. 193-211.
The author devised a Multiple Intelligences/Revised
Bloom’s Taxonomy matrix as a guide to developing objectives and
to suggest learning activities and questions that range from simple
to complex thinking in each of the MIs. In the study reported here
teachers used the matrix to design learning outcomes and activities
so that their students could demonstrate what they understood through
different intellectual domains at the same or different levels
of cognitive complexity.
Olenchak, F. R. (2001). Lessons
learned from gifted children about differentiation. The
Teacher Educator 36 (3), pp185-198.
In
this article, four gifted and talented students, aged 9 to 12,
are studied over a 1- to 3-year period to examine the nature of
their educations and the differentiation offered to them. Based
on problems in these students' school programs that were unearthed
through the case studies, systematic interventions were implemented
to improve differentiation for each student on a personal level.
Results support personalized differentiation as the optimal means
for accommodating the needs of the diversity of gifted and talented
youth in schools. Pool, C. R. (2000). Differentiation in the Classroom. Educational Leadership 58(1) p. 96.
Does your philosophy of education include
the following assertions?
·
Students
are more effective learners when classrooms and schools create
a sense of community in which they feel significant and respected.
·
The
central job of schools is to maximize the capacity of each student.
Then differentiation of instruction is the
ticket for you! This Educational Leadership includes many suggestions
for varying instructional strategies to meet the needs of all students--through
differentiation. Smutny, J.F. Differentiated
Instruction. Phi Delta Kappa Fastbacks no. 506 (2003) p.
7-47
This article discusses various
topics that can be addressed when deciding how to differentiate
instruction. The topics addressed are: The
learning environment, identifying curriculum essentials, and
working from student needs. Activities that might be useful are
stations, tiered activities, compacting, and flexible grouping.
The author also discusses learning styles and using multiple
intelligences. The most useful parts are the sections that utilize
a series of questions that can be asked to determine what needs
to be done and how to do it. Tomlinson, C. T. (2000). Differentiated Instruction: Can It Work? The Education Digest 65 (5) 25-31.
The Sheridan Public Schools, in Englewood,
Colorado, began its journey toward differentiation by ensuring
that the five-member board of education and central-office administrators
and principals first understood the key concepts before moving
on to teaching the staff. While not all district-level leaders
need be experts on differentiation, they mustn't ask teachers to
undertake a significant change about which they themselves are
vague or ill-prepared. This article describes several areas of
preparation that make good sense.
List
internet resources, software, books, etc. with brief descriptions These are various resources on Differentiated Instruction. These methods are based on research and practical applications, and offer suggestions and guidelines that will be useful in general and special education classrooms. Books Bender, W. N. (2002). Differentiating instruction for students with learning disabilities: Best teaching practices for general and special educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. These classroom-proven strategies empower the teacher to target instructional modifications to the content, process, and products for students with learning disabilities in the general and the special education classroom. These best practices are the most up-to-date tactics available and specify numerous ways to differentiate instruction for students with learning disabilities. Invaluable for teachers in both inclusive and individual classes, this book provides numerous ideas and examples to help
The use of these research-proven practices will result in academic enhancement in your classroom. Whether your challenging students are identified as learning disabled or low-achieving, these strategies and tactics can lead to significant gains for you in reading comprehension, language arts, and math. Benjamin, A. (2003). Differentiated Instruction: A Guide for Elementary School Teachers. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. This book shows you how to vary your instruction so you can respond to the needs of individual learners. The examples and classroom activities in this book focus on- reading fiction - reading non-fiction - vocabulary - spelling - penmanship - map and globe skills - math - science - the arts Also included is coverage of – - differentiated instruction for English language learners - brain-based learning and multiple intelligences - the impact of differentiated instruction on high stakes testing Benjamin, A. (2002). Differentiated Instruction: A guide for middle and high school teachers. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. This book shows you how to vary your instruction
so you can respond to the needs of individual learners. The concrete
examples in this book demonstrate how you can use differentiated
instruction to clarify: Forsten, C., Grant, J., & Hollas, B. (2002). Differentiated Instruction: Different Stategies for different learners. Peterborough, NH: Crystal Springs Books. Differentiated Instruction contains 101 classroom-tested, easy-to-implement strategies. This well-indexed resource provides you with easy access to a variety of ideas to help out in different problem areas. Strategies are arranged by grade level within each of the following sections: Classroom Management, Community Building, Teacher's Toolbox, Literacy, Math, and Assessment. Also includes helpful graphics, time-saving reproducibles, and a comprehensive resource list. Available from www.crystalsprings.com Gregory, G., & Chapman, C. (2002). Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't fit all. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. This book presents the practical techniques and processes that teachers can use to adjust learning based on individual students’ knowledge, skills, experience, preferences, and needs. The most recent and best practices in pedagogy--the ones that make a real and positive difference in student achievement--are explored in-depth, including:
A variety of curriculum approaches, including Centers, Projects, Problem-Based Learning, Inquiry Models, and Contracts are all featured, complete with explanations and examples. A planning model is included as well, to help teachers make the right decisions about instruction and assessment on an individual basis. Norlund, M. (2003). Differentiated instruction: Meeting the educational needs of al students in your classroom. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education. This text deals with topics ranging from general methods of differentiating instruction to specific methods for students with attention deficit/hyperactivity, learning disabilities, above average intelligence, cognitive impairments, autism, behavioral challenges and those who are at-risk. The information is well grounded in research, and the explanations of what to do and why are simple and to the point. This would make an excellent starting point to begin a program of differentiated instruction at any level. Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Differentiating instruction for academic diversity. In J. M. Cooper (Ed.), Classroom teaching skills, 7th ed (pp 149-180). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
To
teach all students in a class effectively, a teacher must take
into account the variety of ways in which students differ from
one another, and offer instruction that responds to this variety.
Differentiated instruction is teaching with student variance in
mind. According to the author, ”.. . differentiated instruction
is ‘responsive’ teaching rather than ‘one-size-fits-all’ teaching.”
In
this highly interactive chapter with many examples from real classrooms,
Tomlinson helps the reader develop a personal rationale for teaching
to address learner needs; provides specific ways to differentiate
content, activities, and products in response to student readiness,
interest, and learning profile; and helps the reader think about
practical ways to become a responsive teacher. |