Theoretical Underpinnings of Exemplary Practice
Role of the Learner Role of the Teacher
Role of the Curriculum Role of Assessment
Students with language learning disabilities require instruction that addresses their weaknesses in linguistic and metacognitive skills. Instruction in these areas is driven by the social constructivist view of learning, which is the belief that knowledge is actively constructed within the mind of an individual and fostered through social interactions (Alexander & Fox, 2004; Harris & Hodges, 1995; Pressley, 2006). The construction of knowledge is based on the individual’s perceptions of incoming information and is affected by the individual’s prior social and cultural experiences and knowledge, schema, and beliefs (Harris & Hodges; Pearson & Stephens, 1994). Social constructivism further views the process of learning as superior to its outcome, with higher level thinking being emphasized through analysis of interpretations and connections with previous experiences (Au, 2000; Harris & Hodges). The social context of learning is as important as the learning of skills and strategies to become independent in comprehending what is spoken and read. Vygotsky’s (1962) theory of cognitive development, which is an essential component of social constructivism, purported that for optimal cognitive development, there needed to be social interactions between the adult and child that occurred within the child’s zone of proximal development (Pressley, 2006). Hence, in order for students to acquire knowledge, they needed to be actively involved in a challenging task with adult support within a social context. Furthermore, Vygotsky (1978) supported teacher modeling and social communication as the medium for students to learn and develop higher-level linguistic and metacognitive skills (Westby, 2005). It is through these discussions that children truly understand and internalize the meaning of new concepts, ideas, and strategies, which promotes successful development of speaking, listening, reading and writing skills (Wilkinson & Silliman, 2000).
Research conducted by psycholinguists in the 1960s and 1970s contributed to the knowledge that learning to read was strongly associated with language acquisition and use (Alexander & Fox, 2004; Pearson & Stephens, 1994). Kenneth S. Goodman (1967) published an article titled "Reading: A Psycholinguistic Guessing Game," in which he identified the critical components of oral language that readers use to comprehend text, which included knowledge of sentence structures, word meaning, and letter-sound correspondence (Pearson & Stephen). This seminal work provided critical information regarding how learners comprehend what they read, and how they decode difficult-to-read words within text with readers’ language skills either enhancing or inhibiting the process (Pearson & Stephen). Wilkinson and Silliman (2000) also identified a direct correlation between students’ skills in language, discourse, and prior knowledge and their reading comprehension. Good readers integrate these skills as they read to facilitate comprehension of text. Moreover, Gough and Tummer (1986) and Hoover and Gough (1990) established the Simple View of Reading, which is a view that learning to read to comprehend is strongly based on the linguistic processes of translating print into language and comprehending that language to make sense of what is read (Catts & Hogan, 2003). The skills in word recognition and listening comprehension were believed to be critical in reading comprehension, which further supported the connection between reading and language (Catts & Hogan; Catts & Kamhi, 2005)Based on the knowledge that there is a strong correlation between the linguistic processes necessary for spoken and written language, it can be hypothesized that skills learned in one area, either listening or reading comprehension, may transfer to the other.
In addition to the linguistic knowledge necessary to listen and read, students also need higher-level linguistic and cognitive processes to comprehend spoken and written language. For example, Shepard (2004) identified metacognition as essential to intellectual thought, since it allows individuals to employ strategies and to self-monitor and self-correct while reading to comprehend. Spear-Swerling (2004) defined strategic readers as readers who routinely use some reading strategies to repair errors in comprehension, for example, rereading, summarizing, and using context to decipher word meaning. Other strategies, such as identifying text structures, can reduce the burden on working memory facilitating information processing and text comprehension (Hacker, 2004). Self-monitoring aids the reader in determining whether he or she understands or fails to understand text (Hacker). As the reader applies strategies, he or she is continuously monitoring comprehension, comparing what is extracted from the page to what the reader knows about the subject (Hacker). Furthermore, self-regulation is the control one has when reading to resolve problems and improve comprehension; therefore, if a conflict arises between what the reader knows, and what he or she interprets while reading text, he or she will identify and correct the problem so the reading process can continue (Hacker). As readers and writers construct meaning from text, they must continuously evaluate the processes they use and make changes to these processes, if necessary, to ensure success (Ruddell & Unrau, 2004).
Students with language learning disabilities (LLD) demonstrate deficits in all these areas. Their language comprehension and production difficulties impact their ability to comprehend language and to orally communicate their thoughts, impeding participation in discussions within the classroom to further enhance understanding of text. Additionally, students with LLD present with deficits in metacognition, which affect their ability to monitor and regulate their understanding of what they hear and read while engaging in these tasks. With breakdowns in the areas of linguistic and metacognitive knowledge, their ability to learn in the classroom setting is significantly hampered. Therefore, students with LLD require explicit instruction in these areas to enhance opportunities to actively participate and learn the classroom content.