Forms of social influence

Social influence refers to the ways in which people are influenced by real or imagined pressure from others. Conformity and obedience are forms of social influence that vary in terms of the degree of pressure brought to bear on a person, with conformity representing the least pressure.

Conformity can be defined as a change in behavior or belief to a group's standards as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

Compliance refers to responding favorably to an explicit request by another person.

Obedience is defined as a change in behavior in response to the instructions or commands of person's in authority.

A professor requires that papers be received by certain date in order to receive credit. Student behavior would be an example of
conformity
compliance
obedience

Wanting to be helpful, Marie agrees to join her friends in a drive to collect food for the homeless. This would be an example of
conformity
compliance
obedience

After being asked by his mother, Jerry mows the lawn. This would be an example of
conformity
compliance
obedience

Conformity

Again, conformity can be defined as a change in behavior or belief to a group's standards as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

Reasons for conformity

Why do we go along with the group? Why do we often find such a need to conform?

Several explanations have been proposed.

Automatic mimicry

Without thinking, we often mimic the behaviors of others, their facial expressions, their mannerisms, and their posture.

For example, when one person yawns, people around him often start yawning.

This has been demonstrated experimentally. In one study, when confederates of the experimenter rubbed their faces, subjects also rubbed their faces at a higher frequency. When confederates shook their foot, subjects mimicked that as well.

Why does this mindless mimicry occur?

Ideomotor action

William James proposed the principle of ideomotor action in 1890 which suggests that merely thinking about some action makes it more likely that it will be performed.

Which of the following would be an example of ideomotor action?
In recent years, tattoos have become increasingly popular among people in all walks of life. After Mike gets a new tattoo, his friend John also gets one.
Jennifer tells her friend Sarah that she is blocking on the name of the Hispanic housewife in Desperate Housewives. Sarah, also a fan of the show, replies that she too is blocking on the name.

Ideomotor action may occur because the areas in the brain responsible for perception overlap with those responsible for action.

Preparation for interaction with others

If we expect to interact with others, mimicking their behavior increases rapport and makes the interaction itself go more smoothly.

One implication of this theory is that we are more likely to mimic the behavior of a group if we hold __________ attitudes toward that group.
positive
negative
neutral

One study which looked at this found that participants who were led to think about old people tended to _____________________.
walk faster if their attitudes were positive
walk slower if their attitudes were negative
walk faster if their attitudes were negative
walk slower if their attitudes were positive
a and b
c and d

Normative social influence (group pressure)

Groups have the power to reward and punish us. We not only want to be accepted but we also fear rejection and the power of the group to punish.

Informational social influence

We also have a tendency to use groups as a source of information. To the extent that we do this, we conform to other people's views of reality.

Classic studies of conformity

Sherif study

Muzafer Sherif (1935, 1936) used the autokinetic effect to study conformity and the establishment of group norms or standards of behavior.

The autokinetic effect is what happens when you look at a stationary point of light, either in a darkened room, or in the night sky.

When individual subjects are asked to stare at a point of light in a room and are then asked to make estimates, the estimates are well-distributed around a median value.

On the other hand, when people are asked to make estimates in a group, the estimates all converge around a group norm. Moreover, individuals continue to be influenced by this group norm for up to a year when alone and estimating.

Would this be an example of normative or informational social influence?
normative
informational

Asch study

Solomon Asch did not use ambiguous stimuli like a spot of light, but rather unambiguous, clear-cut stimuli in his famous study of conformity (1951).

Asch asked subjects which of 3 comparison lines matched a standard line in length.

During a session, a number of persons besides the subject were present, but all were confederates of the experimenter pretending to be subjects. On various pre-arranged trials, these people unanimously gave an answer that was clearly false.

During one of these trials, the subjects faced a problem---Should they go along with the group and give a false answer or should they buck the trend and give a correct answer?

The results of this study found that subjects conformed to the majority about 37% of the time. 75% of those tested conformed on at least 1 occasion.

Would this be an example of normative or informational social influence?
normative
informational

One important difference between the procedure used by Sherif and that used by Asch concerned the
role of perceptual contrast.
impact of diminishing returns.
cultural origins of the participants.
degree of uncertainty.

The influence that produces conformity because a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant is called
normative social influence
informational social influence
automatic mimicry

Variables affecting conformity

Group size

Although conformity increases with group size, this only occurs up to a given point. In Asch's studies, conformity only increases to a group size of 3 or 4.

Reference groups

We are most likely to conform to those to whom we are similar or wish to be similar.

Likewise, people in cohesive groups are more likely to conform to each other’s behavior.

Expertise and social status

In conformity situations, we are more likely to be influenced by others who are either high in expertise or high in status.

In an experiment in 1955, Torrance gave a series of reasoning problems to members of a Navy bombing crew, a pilot, a navigator, and a gunner. The crews were asked to give one answer for the whole group. The most correct answers were given when the __________ originally came up with the correct solution.
pilot
navigator
gunner

What might happen if other members of the group are low status or stigmatized people?

Try to predict what might happen in these situations.
Subjects are still likely to agree with group members so long as they are in agreement.
Subjects are not influenced at all when other group members are of lower status or are from stigmatized groups.
Subjects are likely to go out of their way to avoid agreeing with low status or stigmatized people.

Group unanimity

If you find another person who shares your point of view, your tendency to conform to group pressure is greatly reduced. This person would be referred to as an ally.

This turns out to have a powerful effect in reducing conformity.

Gilovich, Keltner, and Nisbett note the liberating effect when an individual breaks with the group’s unanimity. Even if one recognizes that the dissenter is incorrect, one feels less of a need to conform and is more comfortable speaking one’s own opinion.

Gilovich et al. suggest that the liberating effects of having an ally as well as the relationship between group size and conformity have implications for the optimal size of a jury.

Most juries have 12 members, but some states allow juries of 6 and 8.

Given what you know about group size and conformity, is a juror more likely to conform when 11 other people agree than when 5 or 7 others agree?
yes
no

Are you more likely to get a near-unanimous majority in a small jury or a large jury?
small jury
large jury

Therefore, the interests of fair verdicts are most likely to be achieved when there is a _______________ jury.
6-man
12-man

Anonymity

Do people conform more in their public responses or their private opinions?
public responses
private opinions

Sometimes, this public/private discrepancy can be seen in how people behave in the privacy of the voting booth as opposed to their public statements. For example, I noticed that when Bill Clinton was President, a lot of man-on-the-street interviews were quite negative, yet he won his 2nd term with quite a big margin.

Difficulty of the task

The less certain we initially are about what is correct or appropriate behavior, the more likely we are to conform.

When the task is easy and the answer unambiguous, which type of social influence is eliminated?
normative social influence
informational social influence

When the task is difficult and the answer ambiguous, which type(s) of social influence is(are) active?
normative social influence
informational social influence
both of the above

Gender

Research has shown that women are more likely to conform than men, but only by a bit. This is because females are more likely to be socialized to value interdependence and to nurture social relationships.

Whether either sex conforms more depends more on situational factors.

For example, females would be expected to conform more than males when
interactions are face-to-face.
the content of the task is less familiar than it is to males.
Both of the above.

Age

What age group might be the most conforming to peers?
young children
early adolescents
late adolescents
adults

Culture

Since conformity is a highly social behavior, it is not surprising that cultural differences exist in the degree and nature of conformity.

People in interdependent (or collectivist) cultures value interpersonal harmony and feel obligations to their ingroup.

People in independent (individualistic) cultures have less of this need.

Given this, one would expect conformity to be higher in ___________ countries.
interdependent
independent

In some respects, Americans are less conforming than people in many other cultures. However, the picture is complicated in the sense that in some cases, we are more conforming.

We certainly value nonconforming behavior more than people in many other societies who value obligations to the group and group harmony.

This sometimes leads to less conformity. However, Fathali Moghaddam points out the irony that in our culture, we conform to the ideal of nonconformity.

Sometimes less conformity than in interdependent societies

The Japanese are a much more collectivist society than are Americans, yet conform less in Asch type experiments.

Why?

To whom does one conform in collectivist societies?
ingroup members
outgroup members (strangers)
both ingroup and outgroup members

Obedience

Obedience refers to the form of social influence in which a person's behavior is changed in response to the direct commands of others.

While obedience is necessary for society to function, concern with obedience has been created because of the many situations in which people obey authority figures and harm innocent people, as in Nazi Germany and at My Lai in Vietnam.

The pioneering work on obedience was done by Stanley Milgram.

In this study, subjects entered a laboratory for a word-association learning experiment. One subject (the real, unknowing one) was assigned to be a "teacher" and another subject a "learner" (actually a mild-mannered 47-year-old accountant who was a confederate of the experimenter). The "teachers" (real subjects) were everyday workers, businesspeople, and professionals.

Whenever the learner made a mistake, the teacher was instructed to deliver progressively stronger shocks. In front of the "teacher" (the real subject) was a "shock generator" with 30 switches starting at 15 volts (slight shock) and ranging up to 450 volts (labeled "Danger: Severe Shock"). The learner being shocked was in another room, but the teacher could hear his responses.

The learner was trained to give a predetermined set of responses at each shock level, starting with grunts, then shouts, then "Experimenter, get me out of here! I won't be in the experiment any more!," to letting it be known that he wouldn't give answers any more, to cries of agony and complaints about his heart, to eventual complete silence after 330 volts.

Were the subjects bothered by what they were doing? Strongly. They would look to the experimenter for guidance, but he would urge them to continue. The experimenter would calmly tell subjects, "Please continue" or "You have no other choice; you must go on."

Before the experiment began, Milgram asked both experts and laypeople how obedient his subjects would be and they unanimously agreed that participants would only deliver the minimal voltage.

However, in reality, despite the cries of pain and pleas to stop, fully 65% of the subjects gave the maximum intensity of shock.

What is surprising about research on obedience is just how obedient normal people are. Cultural differences exist in full obedience, ranging from 40% in Australians to 90% in the Dutch.

Upon what factors does obedience in this situation depend?

Obedience is _________ when the teacher is closer physically and emotionally to the learner.
greater
less

In the original version, the experimenter was physically present to the teacher. In another version, he gave his commands by phone.

If the experimenter is physically present, obedience is _______.
greater
less

Other variables which affect obedience are

• the legitimacy of the experimenter (the higher, the more obedience)
• whether a fellow participant refuses to participate (lower obedience)
• institutional authority (more when conducted at Yale, less when done at a downtown office)
• whether the experimenter accepts personal responsibility for any harm (more obedience when experimenter is responsible)
• gradual escalation of shocks

Why would gradual escalation from mild shocks to more severe shocks make subjects more likely to be obedient than if subjects started by delivering a strong shock?
By the time subjects realize the implications of what they are doing, they are committed to the experiment and find it difficult to back out.
Behavior can lead to attitude change. As people behave poorly against others, they begin to devalue them. An escalating spiral develops.
Both of the above are explanations

Compliance

Compliance occurs when we respond to the direct requests of others. Of course, how these requests are made increases the probability that compliance will be gained.

Ask a certain way

If you take someone by surprise and the request sounds reasonable, people are more likely to comply.

An example of this is the rapid-fire pitch often used by salespersons or (especially for me) telephone sales solicitors.

Why is surprise an advantage?
You are unable to evaluate the person’s honesty.
The persuader doesn’t offer alternative choices.
You are off-guard and don’t have a chance to think.
All of the above.

Rely upon the norm of reciprocity

We comply with requests from those to whom we feel indebted.

Foot-in-the-door

The basic idea is to soften someone up with a small or trivial request which will likely be complied with and then hit him with a much larger one.

Apparently the chances will be much increased that the larger request will be complied with.

An example might be panhandlers asking for the time, then money.

Door-in-the-face

This technique is just the opposite of the foot-in-the-door method.

Whereas the foot-in-door technique involves making a small request followed by a larger request, the door-in-the-face technique involves making a large request first and then following it with a small request.

Initially, the large request is refused, but the smaller request is agreed to.

Why might this work?
According to the principle of reciprocal concessions, if someone backs down and meets you half-way, you feel that you should also make a concession.
Self-presentation is important because after having refused someone once, you agree to the 2nd request to avoid being considered a negative person.
Both of the above are explanations for the effectiveness of foot-in-the-door.

Low balling

A technique where one is made an attractive offer, compliance is gained, and then one is thrown a "low ball", a hidden unattractive part of the deal. Most people still comply.

Consider an unscrupulous auto dealer, who makes you a very attractive offer, you accept, and then you discover that an expensive option you thought was part of the deal is not or that the manager won't go along with an offer that low----Many people still go ahead and buy the car.

Why does this work?

Many people hesitate to go back on a commitment either because it affects their self-image to do so or because of the strain of making one more decision.

That's not all, folks!

Here something is offered at one price, but before the potential buyer has a chance to respond, the seller says, "That's not all, folks!" and either sweetens the offers with something else or reduces the price.
Compliance is higher here than if the final offer was just put on the table in the first place.

When Penny goes into a particular store, the salesperson offers her a free cup of coffee and some pastry. Having accepted this, Penny feels that she should buy something in the store. Quite possibly, the salesperson hopes that the coffee and pastry will increase sales as a function of the
door-in-the-face technique
norm of reciprocity
foot-in-the-door technique
That’s not all, folks! technique
low-balling technique

Matt spends two hours with a salesman discussing the features of a new computer he wants to buy, one that is on sale. After agreeing to purchase the computer, the salesman then indicates that the sale price does not include tax, shipping fees, and the sales commission. The salesman is best described as having used the
door-in-the-face technique
norm of reciprocity
foot-in-the-door technique
That’s not all, folks! technique
low-balling technique

One explanation for the effectiveness of low-balling is that it is based on the psychology of
conformity
commitment
salience
vigilance

Jamie wants an extra day to write a paper for class. Jamie first asks the professor for a one-week extension for the paper assignment. The professor refuses. Jamie then asks for a one-day extension. The professor agrees. Jamie’s behavior best illustrates
door-in-the-face technique
norm of reciprocity
foot-in-the-door technique
That’s not all, folks! technique
low-balling technique

When trying to convince customers to purchase articles of clothing from their store, the salespeople at Fashion Flourishes often attempt to make the deal more attractive by adding free hosiery and gift certificates. The sales strategy employed by the store illustrates
door-in-the-face technique
norm of reciprocity
foot-in-the-door technique
That’s not all, folks! technique
low-balling technique

Jason was approached by a student who asked him to sign a petition supporting funding for an environmental program. Although Jason never thought much about environmental issues, he signed the petition. A week later, a different student approached Jason and asked to volunteer an hour a week to help start a community recycling program and educate the community about environmental issues. Jason consented. His compliance to this second request can best be explained as
door-in-the-face technique
norm of reciprocity
foot-in-the-door technique
That’s not all, folks! technique
low-balling technique

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