Researchers who study cultures often describe them according to several dimensions. Since these are "either-or" dimensions, the the term cultural dichotomies is often used. Keep in mind that these dichotomies are end-points on continuous dimensions. Thus, cultures don't always fall at one extreme or another.

Cultural dichotomies

Cultural traditionalism

Traditional cultures have rules, principles, symbols, and traditions predominately established in the past.

Nontraditional cultures are based upon newer ideas, principles, and practices, often driven by scientific developments and new technology. In general, nontraditional cultures have adopted the ideology of individualism, which emphasizes freedom of choice and individual rights.

Traditional and nontraditional cultures differ in a number of respects.

Reluctance to accept new knowledge about the nature of things is characteristic of ___________ cultures.
traditional
nontraditional

When evaluating a person's behavior, emphasis is placed upon the individual's choice. This is characteristic of ___________ cultures.
traditional
nontraditional

There is a clear distinction between good and evil in ___________ cultures.
traditional
nontraditional

In traditional cultures, social roles are __________ by individuals.
prescribed
achieved

Geert Hofstede (1980) contributed additional ways in which cultures could be conceptualized.

Power distance

Power distance refers to the degree to which different cultures encourage or maintain power and status differences between interactants.

For example, in countries high in power distance, organizations have managers seen as making decisions autocratically and paternalistically.

In contrast, in low PD countries, managers are perceived as making decisions after consulting with subordinates.

High PD countries include Mexico, Venezuela, and India. Countries low in PD are Denmark, Israel, and Austria.

I’m going to give you some characteristics of organizations associated with this dimension and let’s see whether you can guess whether we are describing a high or low PD country.

Employees fear to disagree with boss.
High power distance
Low power distance

Close supervision negatively evaluated by subordinates.
High power distance
Low power distance
 

Employees show more cooperativeness.
High power distance
Low power distance

Companies have larger proportions of supervisory personnel.
High power distance
Low power distance

In what type of society would there be less preoccupation by people in their everyday interactions with the behavioral rules associated with status?
High power distance
Low power distance
 

Uncertainty avoidance

Uncertainty-avoidance (UA) describes the degree to which societies and cultures develop ways to deal with the anxiety and stress of uncertainty.

Cultures that are high in uncertainty-avoidance and the companies that operate within them have developed rules and rituals to deal with this uncertainty.

Countries high in uncertainty-avoidance (high UA), hence rule-oriented, include Greece, Portugal, and Japan. Companies in Sweden, Denmark, and Singapore have a more relaxed attitude and fewer rules (low UA).

Again, I’m going to give you some organizational characteristics associated with this dimension and let’s see whether you can guess whether we are describing a high or low uncertainty-avoidance country.

Employees have a tendency to stay with the same employer.
High UA
Low UA

Managers should be selected on the basis of seniority.
High UA
Low UA

More risk taking.
High UA
Low UA

Company rules may be broken for pragmatic reasons.
High UA
Low UA

In everyday life, people refer to rules, customs, or the opinions of authority figures to resolve issues.
High UA
Low UA

Individualism-collectivism

Companies in individualistic and collectivist cultures also reflect these values.

Again, in individualistic cultures, the needs, wishes, and goals of individuals take precedence over group goals, while in collectivist cultures, interdependence of individuals within the group is fostered and individuals sacrifice their personal needs for the sake of a common good.

Which of the following describe companies in individualistic (high IC) and collectivist (low IC) cultures?

Clear distinctions are made between personal time and company time.
High IC (individualistic)
Low IC (collectivist)

Workers in the United States, Australia, Great Britain, and Canada were the most individualistic. The most collectivist companies were in Peru, Pakistan, Columbia, and Venezuela.

Harry Triandis (1996) made further distinctions when referring to individualistic and collectivist societies. He suggested that there are two kinds of collectivism and individualism, horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal

In these groups, all members are equal to one another. If they are horizontal collectivists, they are equal and have obligations to one another. If they are horizontal individualists, they are equal, but autonomous (independent).

Vertical

In these groups, hierarchical or status relationships exist. Vertical collectivists serve the group, but a hierarchy exists with some members being of higher status.

In vertical individualism, members are autonomous, but unequal in power or status.

How would you describe your family?
horizontal collectivists
horizontal individualists
vertical collectivists
vertical individualists

Even though cultures might be characterized as individualistic or collectivist, one should keep in mind, as the above examples illustrate, that individualism/collectivism is context-specific. For example, people may be collectivist at home and individualist when interacting with strangers at work, or vice-versa.

Masculinity

Masculinity refers to the degree to which cultures foster or maintain differences between the sexes in the workplace or society at large.

Which of the following describes companies in high masculinity (high MA) and low masculinity (low MA) countries?

Leadership, independence, and self-realization are valued.
High MA
Low MA